In this provocative and engaging book, Lee Kirkpatrick establishes a broad, comprehensive framework for approaching the psychology of religion from an evolutionary perspective. Within this framework, attachment theory provides a powerful lens through which to reconceptualize diverse aspects of religious belief and behavior. Rejecting the notion that humans possess religion-specific instincts or adaptations, Kirkpatrick argues that religion instead emerges from numerous psychological mechanisms and systems that evolved for other functions. This integrative work will spark discussion, debate, and future research among anyone interested in the psychology of religion, attachment theory, and evolutionary psychology, as well as religious studies. It will also serve as a text in advanced undergraduate and graduate-level courses. From Lee Kirkpatrick, winner of the APA Division 36 William James Award for outstanding and sustained contributions to the psychology of religion
1. Introduction An Ambitious Agenda Scientific Comprehensive Explanatory Psychology of ... Religion A New Direction Attachment Theory Evolutionary Psychology The Plan of This Book 2. Introduction to Attachment Theory Backdrop The Attachment System Other Related Systems The Phenomenology of Attachment Individual Differences in Attachment in Childhood Multiple Attachment Figures Internal Working Models and the Stability of Attachment Patterns Attachment in Adulthood Attachment and Adult Romantic Relationships Individual Differences in Adult Romantic Attachment Factorial and Dimensional Models The Formation and Development of Adult Love Bonds An Alternative Approach to Adult Attachment Attachment and Evolutionary Psychology Summary and Conclusions 3. God as an Attachment Figure Religion as Relationship But Is It Really an Attachment Relationship? Seeking and Maintaining Proximity to God Proximity in Belief and Myth Facilitating Psychological Proximity Prayer Other Religious Behaviors God as a Haven of Safety Crisis and Distress Illness and Injury Death and Grieving God as a Secure Base Phenomenology Psychological Outcomes Responses to Separation and Loss Summary and Conclusions 4. More on Religion as an Attachment Process: Some Extensions and Limitations Religion and Love What Kind of Love?: Romantic Attachment versus Attachment to God God as a Parental Figure Individual Differences in Images of God God as a Benevolent Caregiver God as Controlling and Demanding Children's Beliefs about God Beyond God: Extensions and Limitations To Generalize, or Not to Generalize? The Problem with Parsimony Other Forms of Attachment (or Not) in Religion Relationships with Other Supernatural Beings Relationships with Religious Leaders Relationships with Fellow Worshipers and Other Peers Relationships with Groups Nontheistic Religions Summary and Conclusions 5. Individual Differences in Attachment and Religion: The Correspondence Hypothesis Mental Models and the Correspondence Hypothesis Correspondence in Childhood and Adolescence Correspondence in Adulthood Correspondence Across Cultures Internal Working Models of Self and Others Continuity from Childhood to Adulthood The Socialized-Correspondence Hypothesis The Two-Level Correspondence Hypothesis ""Socialization"" as an Alternative Explanation The Inadequacy of ""Socialization"" as Explanation The Epidemiology of Beliefs Individual Differences Revisited Summary and Conclusions 6. God as a Substitute Attachment Figure: The Compensation Hypothesis Individual Differences and Religious Conversion Individual Differences in Childhood Attachment and Conversion Sudden Religious Conversion Other Evidence for a Compensation Model A Two-Process Model Individual Differences in Adult Attachment Contextual Factors in Religious Change Separation and Loss Bereavement Relationship Dissolution Unavailability of Attachment Figures Perceived Inadequacy of Human Attachment Figures Cultural Factors Summary and Conclusions 7. Attachment in Context: Introduction to Evolutionary Psychology Evolutionary Psychology as a Paradigm or Metatheory Adaptation and Natural Selection Adaptations ""Selfish Genes"" and Inclusive Fitness Domain-Specificity and the Mental-Organs Model Nature ""versus"" Nurture Stone Age Minds in Modern Environments Individual Differences in Evolutionary Context Stable Environmental Differences Direct Genetic Effects Frequency-Dependent Adaptive Strategies Early Environmental Calibration An Example of Facultative Strategies: Human Mating Are Evolutionary Explanations Unfalsifiable? Some Illustrative Examples: Politics, Music, and Sports Summary and Conclusions 8. Attachment Theory in Modern Evolutionary Perspective Childhood Attachment in Modern Evolutionary Perspective Parental Caregiving and Parent-Offspring Conflict Individual Differences in Childhood Attachment Attachment and Reproductive Strategies The Belsky, Steinberg, and Draper Model Individual Differences in Adult Attachment Love Revisited Love or Attachment? Love as a Commitment Device Implications for the Theory of Attachment and Religion Correspondence and the RS Hypothesis Compensation, Sudden Conversion, and the LM Hypothesis Summary and Conclusions 9. Religion: Adaptation or Evolutionary By-product? Is There a Unique Religious Instinct? Universality Genetics Neurology Ethology Problems with the Religion-as-Instinct View The Problem of Identifying the Adaptive Function Psychological vs. Reproductive Benefits Group Selection vs. Selfish Genes Costs vs. Benefits Begging Questions The Problem of Identifying the Design The Problem of Establishing Special Design Theoretical Conservatism and the Onus of Proof Religion as an Evolutionary By-product, Not an Adaptation Adaptations vs. Evolutionary By-products Religion as an Evolutionary By-product An Analogy: Games and Sports Summary and Conclusions 10. Beyond Attachment: Religion and Other Evolved Psychological Mechanisms Power, Status, and Intrasexual Competition Supernatural Beings as Power Figures Human Religious Leaders as Power Figures Kinship Supernatural Beings and Religious Leaders as Kin Ingroup Members as Kin Reciprocal Altruism and Social Exchange Supernatural Beings as Social-Exchange Partners Mutual Helping and Social Support Morality and Ethics Coalitional Psychology In-Group Cooperation and Morality Out-Group Discrimination and Conflict Supernatural Beings as Coalitional Partners Summary and Conclusions 11. The Cognitive Origins of Religious Belief Evolved Mechanisms for Thinking about the Natural World Naive Physics and Psychological Animism Naive Biology and Natural Kinds Naive Psychology and Theory of Mind The Psychology of Complex Thinking: How the Mind Works The Cognitive Building Blocks of Religious Belief Animism Psychological Essentialism Anthropomorphism Why Religious Beliefs Succeed Evolved Psychological Mechanisms: Calibration and Bias Religious Beliefs: Combining the Intuitive and the Counterintuitive Beyond Religion: Other Forms of Thought and Belief Parapsychology and Other Supernatural Beliefs Commonsense Knowledge and Reasoning in Everyday Life Science Summary and Conclusions 12. Beyond Genes: Learning, Rationality, and Culture Natural Selection, Genes, and Inclusive Fitness From Genes to Memes Individual Learning, Reinforcement, and the Pleasure Principle Complex Reasoning and Higher-Order Cognitive Processes Social Learning, Socialization, and Cultural Transmission Cooperation, Competition, and Manipulation Memes and Viruses of the Mind Science Revisited Summary and Conclusions 13. Toward an Evolutionary Psychology of Religion A Precis in (More or Less) Reverse Evolutionary Psychology and Adaptation From Genes to Behavior Religion as an Evolutionary Byproduct The Psychological Origins of Religious Belief The Social Psychology of the Supernatural Conclusion An Evolutionary Psychology of Religion for the Future A Theoretically Rich ""Psychology"" of ... A Paradigmatic, Interdisciplinary Science A Coherent Model of Universality vs. Individual Differences Beyond Description to Function Religious Nature Carved at its Joints Avoiding Major Pitfalls in the Psychology of Religion Summary and Conclusions
