The Scientific Attitude, Second Edition

1. INTRODUCTION. 2. MAKING OBSERVATIONS. Observing Cells. Analyzing the Cell Concept. Learning to See Cells. The Cell Gestalt. The Concept of Life. The Impartiality of Science. 3. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN AND INTERPRETATION. Choosing Problems for Study. Hypotheses and Expectations. The Assumption of Reproducibility. Seeing Data According to Different Gestalts. Luck in Science. Explicit and Implicit Hypotheses. Development of Hypotheses. Structure, Function, and Organization in Biology. 4. SCIENTIFIC COLLECTIVES: TRANSMISSION OF THE THOUGHT STYLE. Thought Collectives and Intersubjectivity. Acceptance of New Discoveries by the Thought Collective. Structure of Graduate Programs. The Reputation of Graduate Programs. Graduate Courses and Exams. Thesis Advisors. Structure of Individual Laboratories. Expanding the Laboratory Thought Style. The Ph.D. Thesis. 5. SCIENTIFIC COLLECTIVES: MAINTAINING THE THOUGHT STYLE. Evaluating Prospective Faculty Members. Research Papers. Research Papers Other Than Formal Papers. Research Funding. Setting the Agenda for Future Research. The Scientific Establishment. 6. SCIENTIFIC MISCONDUCT: SCIENCE AT RISK. The Meaning of Scientific Misconduct. Biological Activity of an Infinitely Diluted Solution: A Study in Controversy. Error vs. Fraud--Part I: The Baltimore Case. Error vs. Fraud-- Part II: Why Are They Linked Together? Auditing the Scientific Literature. The Integrity of Science. Secrecy and Sharing Research Data and Materials. Conflict of Interest. 7. SCIENCE AND THE WORLD. The Origins of Science in Everyday Life Experience. Life Experience Beyond Science. Science and Religion. Science and Ethics. Scientists as People. The Influence of Politics on Science. 8. CONCLUDING COMMENTS.